This is where the Lotus University shall give its lecture

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"毎日の小さな努力の積み重ねが歴史を作っていくんだよ。"

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Put a little effort everyday and it will stack up and create a foundation for you.

- Doraemon


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Things to know: Medical Intern and Biomedical Scientist from Indonesia, Muslim, 188 metres tall, loves trains

(This post was last modified: 10-11-2016, 03:08 PM by Hammerstar.)

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The Lotus University was not exactly the best educational institution in the region, however its dedication and progress towards several fields of study have been adored by many. Medicine and Nursing in particular, are the pride and joy of the University, indeed, many innovation in the field of medicine has been made in that university, needless to say, it is one of the best places where one would truly want to hone their skills in the field of Medicine.

The Peony was still young, she had earned her Masters at the age of 28 and is currently working on her Doctorate and her professorate in Medicine. Other than The Peony's official state business, she has decided to have a side occupation as a Lotus University lecturer for the bachelor's program. Like always, the Peony had complete trust in her aides to run this little piece of natural heaven as she made her lecture.

She adorned a red qipao shirt with white embroideries and a pair of blue denim pants. With her are her books and her laptop, her fan hiding neatly inside her pocket. Being The Peony of course, she has never got out of her home without a pink peony tied on her head.

So, she walked down the wooden floor and slid open the door to her class, she walked right in and scanned the amount of people in the class. Not much, she heard that the amount of students had been broken down to groups by this time, only 40 people became the audience of a scholarly lecture. She had also noted that the students are in awe, to see their Nǚwáng becoming their teacher for a day.

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"Assalamualaikum. Ladies and Gentlemen, before we begin this class I propose that we provide a prayer. Prayer begin."

The class took a moment in silence to pray.

"Thank you, now a couple of things. First, since I am your Lao Shi for today, within these walls you are to address me as Doctor Yan. Standard etiquette when facing the Nǚwáng would apply after the class, when exiting and entering the building please proceed with caution, in the University of Lotus we demand that each and every one of you perform your studies while holding both ethical and bioethical values dear. As such, if one were to show unprofessional behavior, I would ask the individual to please leave with this class and come back soon for a recourse. However, a strict class is unfavourable for me, I therefore humbly ask that we go through this as relax and calm adults. Are we in an agreement?"

"Yes Doctor."

"Let us begin, we shall begin with one of the basics. The Cell.”

"毎日の小さな努力の積み重ねが歴史を作っていくんだよ。"

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Put a little effort everyday and it will stack up and create a foundation for you.

- Doraemon


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Things to know: Medical Intern and Biomedical Scientist from Indonesia, Muslim, 188 metres tall, loves trains

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"Cell, which by nomenclature came from Old French Celle or the Latin cella, meaning 'storeroom or chamber'. It is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, which is typically microscopic and typically consists of a cytoplasm, and nucleus enclosed within a membrane. To put it in layman's terms, the cell is what makes us who we are, it is what forms us together from the many atoms in the universe."

Now so long as the cell is active, it'll reproduce more and more cells to facilitate growth of their host organism. Other than facilitating the cell's flourishment, the reproduced cells would also work to repair dead cells or augment the organism into something more developed."

"毎日の小さな努力の積み重ねが歴史を作っていくんだよ。"

---

Put a little effort everyday and it will stack up and create a foundation for you.

- Doraemon


Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplay 2020
Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplayer 2020
Cocos Winner for Best Character Writer 2017
Cocos Winner for Best International Event 2017
Cocos Winner for Best Overall RP 2017

Things to know: Medical Intern and Biomedical Scientist from Indonesia, Muslim, 188 metres tall, loves trains

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Just as bricks and timbers are used to build a house, cells are the structural units of all living things, from one-celled “generalists” like amoebas to complex multicellular organisms such as humans, dogs, and trees. The human body has 50 to 100 trillion of these tiny building blocks.

In the late 1600s, Englishman Robert Hooke was looking through a crude microscope at some plant tissue— cork. He saw some cubelike structures that reminded him of the long rows of monk’s rooms (or cells) at the monastery, so he named these structures cells. The living cells that had formed the cork were long since dead; only the plant cell walls remained. However, the name stuck and is still used to describe the smallest unit, or the building block, of all living things, plants and animals alike. Since the late 1800s, cell research has been exceptionally fruitful and provided us with four concepts collectively known as the cell theory:
1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. So, when you define cell properties, you are in fact defining the properties of life.
2. The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells.
3. According to the principle of complementarity, the biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their shape or form and by the relative number of their specific subcellular structures.
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis.

We will expand on all of these concepts as we go along. Let’s begin with the idea that the cell is the smallest living unit. Whatever its form, however it behaves, the cell contains all the parts necessary to survive in a changing world. It follows, then, that loss of homeostasis underlies virtually every disease. Perhaps the most striking thing about a cell is its organization. Yet if we chemically analyze cells, we find that they are made up primarily of the same five elements: phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen. Or P.ON.C.H, as I'd like to remember it. With addition of much smaller amounts of several other elements. Strange as it may seem, especially when we feel our firm muscles, living cells are about 60 percent water, which is one of the reasons water is essential for life.

Although no one cell type is exactly like all others, cells do have the same basic parts, and there are certain functions common to all cells. Here we will talk about the generalized cell, which demonstrates these many typical features. In general, all cells have three main regions or parts.

A nucleus (nu′kle-us), cytoplasm (si′to-plazm′′), and a plasma membrane usually located near the center of the cell. It is surrounded by the semifluid cytoplasm, which in turn is enclosed by the plasma membrane, which forms the outer cell boundary. Let's find out about these features.

Anything that works, works best when it is controlled. For cells, “headquarters,” or the control center, is the gene-containing nucleus (nucle = kernel). The genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is much like a blueprint that contains all the instructions needed for building the whole body; so, as you might expect, human DNA differs from frog DNA. More specifically, DNA has the instructions for building proteins. DNA is also absolutely necessary for cell reproduction. A cell that has lost or ejected its nucleus (for whatever reason) is programmed only to die.

Although it is most often oval or spherical, the shape of the nucleus usually conforms to the shape of the cell. For example, if the cell is elongated, the nucleus is usually elongated as well. The nucleus has three recognizable regions or structures: the nuclear envelope, nucleoli, and chromatin.

The nucleus is bounded by a double membrane barrier called the nuclear envelope, or nuclear membrane. Between the two membranes is a fluid-filled “moat,” or space. At various points, the two layers of the nuclear envelope fuse, and nuclear pores penetrate the fused regions. Like other cellular membranes, the nuclear envelope allows some but not all substances to pass through it, but substances pass through it much more freely than elsewhere because of its relatively large pores. The nuclear membrane encloses a jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm (nu′kle-o-plazm′′) in which other nuclear elements are suspended.

The nucleus contains one or more small, darkstaining, essentially round bodies called nucleoli (nu-kle′o-li; “little nuclei”). Nucleoli are sites where cell structures called ribosomes are assembled. Most ribosomes eventually migrate into the cytoplasm where they serve as the actual sites of protein synthesis.

When a cell is not dividing, its DNA is combined with protein and forms a loose network of bumpy threads called chromatin (kro′mah-tin) that is scattered throughout the nucleus. When a cell is dividing to form two daughter cells, the chromatin threads coil and condense to form dense, rodlike bodies called chromosomes—much the way a stretched spring becomes shorter and thicker when allowed to relax. We discuss the functions of DNA and the events of cell division in the Cell Physiology section.

The flexible plasma membrane is a fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and separates them from the surrounding environment. (The term cell membrane is sometimes used instead, but because nearly all cellular organelles are composed of membranes, in this text we will always refer to the cell’s surface or outer limiting membrane as the plasma membrane.) Although the plasma membrane is important in defining the limits of the cell, it is much more than a passive envelope, or “baggie.” As you will see, its unique structure allows it to play a dynamic role in many cellular activities.

The structure of the plasma membrane consists of two lipid (fat) layers arranged “tail to tail” in which protein molecules float. The proteins, some of which are free to move and bob in the lipid layer, form a constantly changing pattern or mosaic, hence the name of the model that describes the plasma membrane. Most of the lipid portion is phospholipids (some with attached sugar groups), but a substantial amount of cholesterol is found in plasma membranes too.

The olive oil–like lipid bilayer forms the basic “fabric” of the membrane. The polar “heads” of the lollipop-shaped phospholipid molecules are hydrophilic (“water loving”) and are attracted to water, the main component of both the intracellular and extracellular fluids, and so they lie on both the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane. Their nonpolar “tails,” being hydrophobic (“water hating”), avoid water and line up in the center (interior) of the membrane. The self-orienting property of the phospholipids allows biological membranes to reseal themselves quickly when torn. The hydrophobic makeup of the membrane interior makes the plasma membrane relatively impermeable to most water-soluble molecules. The cholesterol helps keep the membrane fluid.

The proteins scattered in the lipid bilayer are responsible for most of the specialized functions of the membrane. Some proteins are enzymes. Many of the proteins protruding from the cell exterior are receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers or are binding sites for anchoring the cell to fibers or to other structures inside or outside the cell. Most proteins that span the membrane are involved in transport. For example, some cluster together to form protein channels (tiny pores) through which water and small water-soluble molecules or ions can move; others act as carriers that bind to a substance and move it through the membrane. Branching sugar groups are attached to most of the proteins abutting the extracellular space. Such “sugar-proteins” are called glycoproteins, and because of their presence, the cell surface is a fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area called the glycocalyx (gli-co-ka′liks). You can think of your cells as being sugar-coated. Among other things, these glycoproteins determine your blood type, act as receptors that certain bacteria, viruses, or toxins can bind to, and play a role in cell-to-cell recognition and interactions. Definite changes in glycoproteins occur in cells that are being transformed into cancer cells.

Although certain cell types—blood cells, sperm cells, and some phagocytic cells (which ingest bacteria and foreign debris)—are “footloose” in the body, many other types, particularly epithelial cells, are knit into tight communities. Typically, cells are bound together in three ways:

1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive or cellular glue.

2. Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit together in a tongue-and-groove fashion.

3. Special membrane junctions are formed. These junctions vary structurally depending on their roles.

Because this last factor is the most important, let us look more closely at the various types of junctions.
• Tight junctions are impermeable junctions that encircle the cells and bind them together into leakproof sheets. In tight junctions, adjacent plasma membranes fuse together tightly like a zipper and prevent substances from passing through the extracellular space between cells. In the small intestine, for example, these junctions prevent digestive enzymes from seeping into the bloodstream.

• Desmosomes (des′mo-so ̄mz) are anchoring junctions scattered like rivets along the sides of abutting cells. They prevent cells subjected to mechanical stress (such as heart muscle and skin cells) from being pulled apart. Structurally, these junctions are buttonlike thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes (plaques), which are connected by fine protein filaments. Thicker protein filaments extend from the plaques inside the cells to the plaques on the cells’ opposite sides, thus forming an internal system of strong “guy wires.”

• Gap junctions, commonly seen in the heart and between embryonic cells, function mainly to allow communication. In gap junctions, the neighboring cells are connected by hollow cylinders composed of proteins (called connexons) that span the entire width of the abutting membranes. Chemical molecules, such as nutrients or ions, can pass directly through the water-filled connexon channels from one cell to another.

Now, the Cytoplasm, the cytoplasm is the cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane. It is the site of most cellular activities, so you might think of the cytoplasm as the “factory area” of the cell. Although early scientists believed that the cytoplasm was a structureless gel, the electron microscope has revealed that it has three major elements: the cytosol, organelles, and inclusions. The cytosol is semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements. Dissolved in the cytosol, which is largely water, are nutrients and a variety of other solutes (dissolved substances).

The organelles (or′′gah-nelz′), described in detail shortly, are the metabolic machinery of the cell. Each type of organelle is specialized to carry out a specific function for the cell as a whole. Some synthesize proteins, others package those proteins, and so on.
Inclusions are chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on the specific cell type. Most inclusions are stored nutrients or cell products. They include the lipid droplets common in fat cells, glycogen granules abundant in liver and muscle cells, pigments such as melanin in skin and hair cells, mucus and other secretory products, and various kinds of crystals.

The cytoplasmic organelles, literally “little organs,” are specialized cellular compartments each performing its own job to maintain the life of the cell. Many organelles are bounded by a membrane similar to the plasma membrane. These membrane boundaries allow organelles to maintain an internal environment quite different from that of the surrounding cytosol. This compartmentalisation is crucial to their ability to perform their specialized functions for the cell. Let us consider what goes on in each of these workshops of our cellular factory.

Mitochondria (mi′′to-kon′dre-ah; singular: mitochondrion) are usually depicted as tiny, lozenge-like or sausage-shaped organelles, but in living cells they squirm, lengthen, and change shape almost continuously. The mitochondrial wall consists of a double membrane, equal to two plasma membranes, placed side by side. The outer membrane is smooth and featureless, but the inner membrane has shelflike protrusions called cristae (kris′te; “crests”). Enzymes dissolved in the fluid within the mitochondria, as well as enzymes that form part of the cristae membranes, carry out the reactions in which oxygen is used to break down foods. As the foods are broken down, energy is released. Much of this energy escapes as heat, but some is captured and used to form ATP molecules. ATP provides the energy 3 for all cellular work, and every living cell requires a constant supply of ATP for its many activities. Because the mitochondria supply most of this ATP, they are the “powerhouses” of the cell.

Metabolically “busy” cells, like liver and muscle cells, use huge amounts of ATP and have hundreds of mitochondria. By contrast, cells that are relatively inactive (an unfertilized egg, for instance) have just a few.

Ribosomes Ribosomes (ri′bo-so ̄mz) are tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of proteins and one variety of RNA called ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes are the actual sites of protein synthesis in the cell. Some ribosomes float free in the cytoplasm, where they manufacture proteins that function in the cytoplasm. Others attach to membranes, and the whole ribosome-membrane combination is called the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum (en′′do-plas′mik re ̆-tik′u-lum; “network within the cytoplasm”) (ER) is a system of fluid-filled cisterns (tubules, or canals) that coil and twist through the cytoplasm. It accounts for about half of a cell’s membranes. It serves as a minicirculatory system for the cell because it provides a network of channels for carrying substances (primarily proteins) from one part of the cell to another. There are two forms of ER; a particular cell may have both forms or only one, depending on its specific functions.

The rough ER is so called because it is studded with ribosomes. Because essentially all of the building materials of cellular membranes are formed either in it or on it, you can think of the rough ER as the cell’s membrane factory. The proteins made on its ribosomes migrate into the tubules of the rough ER, where they fold into their functional three-dimensional shapes and then are dispatched to other areas of the cell in transport vesicles. Rough ER is especially abundant in cells that make and export proteins—for example, pancreas cells, which produce digestive enzymes to be delivered to the small intestine. The enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of membrane lipids reside on the external face of the rough ER, where the needed building blocks are readily available. Although the smooth ER communicates with the rough variety, it plays no role in protein synthesis. Instead it functions in lipid metabolism (cholesterol and fat synthesis and breakdown), and detoxification of drugs and pesticides. Hence it is not surprising that the liver cells are chock-full of smooth ER. So too are body cells that produce steroid-based hormones—for instance, cells of the male testes that manufacture testosterone.

Golgi Apparatus The Golgi (gol′je) apparatus appears as a stack of flattened membranous sacs, associated with swarms of tiny vesicles. It is generally found close to the nucleus and is the principal “traffic director” for cellular proteins. Its major function is to modify and package proteins (sent to it by the rough ER via transport vesicles) in specific ways, depending on their final destination.
As proteins “tagged” for export accumulate in the Golgi apparatus, the sacs swell. Then their swollen ends, filled with protein, pinch off and form secretory vesicles (ves′ ̆ı-kuls), which travel to the plasma membrane. When the vesicles reach the plasma membrane, they fuse with it, the membrane ruptures, and the contents of the sac are ejected to the outside of the cell. Mucus is packaged this way, as are digestive enzymes made by pancreas cells.
In addition to its packaging-for-release functions, the Golgi apparatus pinches off sacs containing proteins and phospholipids destined for a “home” in the plasma membrane or other cellular membranes. It also packages hydrolytic enzymes into membranous sacs called lysosomes that remain in the cell.

Lysosomes Lysosomes (li′so-so ̄ mz; “breakdown bodies”), which appear in different sizes, are membranous “bags” containing powerful digestive enzymes. Because lysosomal enzymes are capable of digesting worn-out or nonusable cell structures and most foreign substances that enter the cell, lysosomes function as the cell’s demolition sites. Lysosomes are especially abundant in phagocytes, the cells that dispose of bacteria and cell debris. As described above, the enzymes they contain are formed by ribosomes and packaged by the Golgi apparatus. Note! The lysosomal membrane is ordinarily quite stable, but it becomes fragile when the cell is injured or deprived of oxygen and when excessive amounts of vitamin A are present. When lysosomes rupture, the cell self-digests.

Peroxisomes Peroxisomes (per-ok′sih-so ̄ mz) are membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase (ok′s ̆ı-da ̄z) enzymes that use molecular oxygen (O2) to detoxify a number of harmful or poisonous substances, including alcohol and formaldehyde. However, their most important function is to “disarm” dangerous free radicals. Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can scramble the structure of proteins and nucleic acids. Free radicals are normal byproducts of cellular metabolism, but if allowed to accumulate, they can have devastating effects on cells. Peroxisomes convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a function indicated in their naming (peroxisomes = “peroxide bodies”). The enzyme catalase (kat′ah-la ̄s) then converts excess hydrogen peroxide to water. Peroxisomes are especially numerous in liver and kidney cells, which are very active in detoxification. Although peroxisomes look like small lysosomes, they do not arise by budding from the Golgi apparatus. Instead, they appear to replicate themselves by simply pinching in half, as do mitochondria, but most peroxisomes appear to bud from the ER via a special machinery.

Cytoskeleton An elaborate network of protein structures extends throughout the cytoplasm. This network, or cytoskeleton, acts as a cell’s “bones and muscles” by furnishing an internal framework that determines cell shape, supports other organelles, and provides the machinery for intracellular transport and various types of cellular movements. From its largest to its smallest elements, the cytoskeleton is made up of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments. Although there is some overlap in roles, generally speaking the strong, stable, ropelike intermediate filaments help form desmosomes and provide internal guy wires to resist pulling forces on the cell. Microfilaments such as actin and myosin, are most involved in cell motility and in producing changes in cell shape. You could say that cells move when they get their act(in) together. The tubelike microtubules determine the overall shape of a cell and the distribution of organelles. They are very important during cell division.’

Centrioles The paired centrioles (sen′tre-o ̄lz) lie close to the nucleus. They are rod-shaped bodies that lie at right angles to each other; internally they are made up of a pinwheel array of fine microtubules. Centrioles are best known for their role in generating microtubules, and during cell division, the centrioles direct the formation of the mitotic spindle.

*Ring*

“Excuse me, allow me to answer my mobile.”

The Peony reached towards her pocket and answered her flip phone.

“Assalamualaikum, 喂,….. Yes Mohammad?…. I’m at a Lecture right now… Excellent, await for me there, I’ll be done with my lecture soon…… Pardon?…….. A meeting with the Rectorate of the University?…….. Tell him I’ll make it there…… Please take care of my further calls, I am not to be disturbed when giving a lecture……谢谢。I’ll see you later…… Assalamualaikum..”

The Peony closed her flip phone with a loud clamp, and sheathed it inside her phone.

“Thank you for understanding my position, let’s pause for a while, any questions?”

"毎日の小さな努力の積み重ねが歴史を作っていくんだよ。"

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Put a little effort everyday and it will stack up and create a foundation for you.

- Doraemon


Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplay 2020
Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplayer 2020
Cocos Winner for Best Character Writer 2017
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Things to know: Medical Intern and Biomedical Scientist from Indonesia, Muslim, 188 metres tall, loves trains

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"I guess there isn't none, we will continue our lecture about cells later on, class dismissed, wassalamualaikum."

"Thank you Doctor."

The class was dismissed, every student bowed to their Nǚwáng and kissed her hand with their foreheads. The chalkboard was still dirty, and the Nǚwáng cleant the board before rushing to the Rectorate, where the royal martial artists guarded her as she walked towards the next building.

"毎日の小さな努力の積み重ねが歴史を作っていくんだよ。"

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Put a little effort everyday and it will stack up and create a foundation for you.

- Doraemon


Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplay 2020
Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplayer 2020
Cocos Winner for Best Character Writer 2017
Cocos Winner for Best International Event 2017
Cocos Winner for Best Overall RP 2017

Things to know: Medical Intern and Biomedical Scientist from Indonesia, Muslim, 188 metres tall, loves trains

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*Weeks later*

"Assalamualaikum, 喂,….. Yes Mohammad?…. You're feeling under the weather?.... Pardon? You want me to cover for you in teaching the anatomy?... Superior and Inferior Extremities...Alright, I'll start on the presentation right away. Assalamualaikum."

*Phone rang*

"Assalamualaikum, 喂, who is this? Ah the class coordinator, how may I help you?...... I see, there's going to be another practicum in anatomy and physiology... You'd like me to explain to you all about the nervous system as well?..... Are there any other lecturers on date?..... No? Then you're going to spend a day with me about all of this.... Any objections?.... No, you are not in my disposal, such vulgar words for the Peonic people... Alright, I'll see you tommorow in class. Waalaikumsalam."

The Peony drank her tea, and contacted her aide.

"Tell the committee that I won't be available for tommorow. I have class."

"毎日の小さな努力の積み重ねが歴史を作っていくんだよ。"

---

Put a little effort everyday and it will stack up and create a foundation for you.

- Doraemon


Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplay 2020
Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplayer 2020
Cocos Winner for Best Character Writer 2017
Cocos Winner for Best International Event 2017
Cocos Winner for Best Overall RP 2017

Things to know: Medical Intern and Biomedical Scientist from Indonesia, Muslim, 188 metres tall, loves trains

Reply

The Peony felt odd, she had just finished the weekly committee meet at the royal palace, and is now requested to perform a lecture. She was told that the rest of the academic staff are busy today and that no one are teaching the juniors for today. At least for this week, there's only 3 more lectures she would have to do, later on, it's someone else.

The Peony entered the room,

"Assalamualaikum. Ladies and Gentlemen, before we begin this class I propose that we provide a prayer. Prayer begin."

The class took a moment in silence to pray.

"Thank you, let us begin with the lecture today, the respiratory system."

"毎日の小さな努力の積み重ねが歴史を作っていくんだよ。"

---

Put a little effort everyday and it will stack up and create a foundation for you.

- Doraemon


Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplay 2020
Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplayer 2020
Cocos Winner for Best Character Writer 2017
Cocos Winner for Best International Event 2017
Cocos Winner for Best Overall RP 2017

Things to know: Medical Intern and Biomedical Scientist from Indonesia, Muslim, 188 metres tall, loves trains

Reply

"Your body’s cells continually use oxygen (O2) for the metabolic reactions that release energy from nutrient molecules and produce ATP. At the same time, these reactions release carbon dioxide (CO2). Because an excessive amount of CO2 produces acidity that can be toxic to cells, excess CO2 must be eliminated quickly and efficiently."

"The cardiovascular and respiratory systems cooperate to supply O2 and eliminate CO2. The respiratory system provides for gas exchange—intake of O2 and elimination of CO2—and the cardiovascular system transports blood containing the gases between the lungs and body cells. Failure of either system disrupts homeostasis by causing rapid death of cells from oxygen starva- tion and buildup of waste products. In addition to functioning in gas exchange, the respiratory system also participates in regulating blood pH, contains receptors for the sense of smell, filters inspired air, produces sounds, and rids the body of some water and heat in exhaled air. As in the digestive and urinary systems, which will be covered in subsequent lectures, in the respiratory system there is an extensive area of contact between the external environment and capillary blood vessels."

"毎日の小さな努力の積み重ねが歴史を作っていくんだよ。"

---

Put a little effort everyday and it will stack up and create a foundation for you.

- Doraemon


Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplay 2020
Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplayer 2020
Cocos Winner for Best Character Writer 2017
Cocos Winner for Best International Event 2017
Cocos Winner for Best Overall RP 2017

Things to know: Medical Intern and Biomedical Scientist from Indonesia, Muslim, 188 metres tall, loves trains

Reply

"The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment."
 "In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings, respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs. The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation, and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation; this process is collectively called breathing or ventilation. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and diaphragm. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveoli  in the lungs."
 "In fish and many invertebrates, respiration takes place through the gills. Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata."
 "We shall now look at the Comparative anatomy and physiology  ."
"Horses   Horses are obligate nasal breathers which means that they are different from many other mammals because they do not have the option of breathing through their mouths and must take in oxygen through their noses.
 Elephants   The elephant is the only animal known to have no pleural space. Rather, the parietal and visceral pleura are both composed of dense connective tissue and joined to each other via loose connective tissue. This lack of a pleural space, along with an unusually thick diaphragm, are thought to be evolutionary adaptations allowing the elephant to remain underwater for long periods of time while breathing through its trunk which emerges as a snorkel.
 Birds   The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals, containing unique anatomical features such as air sacs. The lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to inflate as birds lack a diaphragm and a pleural cavity. Gas exchange in birds occurs between air capillaries and blood capillaries, rather than in alveoli.
 Reptiles   The anatomical structure of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals, with reptiles lacking the very extensive airway tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas exchange in reptiles still occurs in alveoli however, reptiles do not possess a diaphragm. Thus, breathing occurs via a change in the volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of intercostal muscles in all reptiles except turtles. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank muscles governs inspiration or expiration.
 Amphibians   Both the lungs and the skin serve as respiratory organs in amphibians. The ventilation of the lungs in amphibians uses positive pressure ventilation. Muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, enlarging it and drawing in air through the nostrils . With the nostrils and mouth closed, the floor of the oral cavity is forced up, which forces air down the trachea into the lungs.The skin of these animals is highly vascularized and moist, with moisture maintained via secretion of mucus from specialized cells. While the lungs are of primary importance to breathing control, the skin's unique properties aid rapid gas exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen-rich water.
 Fish   In most fish, respiration takes place through gills.  Lungfish, however, do possess one or two lungs. The labyrinth fish have developed a special organ that allows them to take advantage of the oxygen of the air.Anatomy in invertebrates  
 Arthropods   Some species of crab use a respiratory organ called a branchiostegal lung. Its gill tissue is formed so as to increase the surface area and the lung is more suited to taking oxygen from the air than from water. Some of the smallest spiders and mites can breathe simply by exchanging gas through the surface of the body. Larger spiders, scorpions and other arthropods use a primitive book lung.
 Insects    Most insects breath passively through their spiracles  and the air reaches the body by means of a series of smaller and smaller pipes called 'trachaea' when their diameter is relatively large and 'tracheoles' when their diameter is very small. Diffusion of gases is effective over small distances but not over larger ones, this is one of the reasons insects are all relatively small. Insects which do not have spiracles and trachaea, such as some Collembola, breathe directly through their skins, also by diffusion of gases."

"Further about insects, the number of spiracles an insect has is variable between species, however they always come in pairs, one on each side of the body, and usually one per segment. Some of the Diplura have eleven, with four pairs on the thorax, but in most of the ancient forms of insects, such as Dragonflies and Grasshoppers there are two thoracic and eight abdominal spiracles. However, in most of the remaining insects there are less." "It is at this level of the tracheoles that oxygen is delivered to the cells for respiration. The trachea are water-filled due to the permeable membrane of the surrounding tissues. During exercise, the water level retracts due to the increase in concentration of lactic acid in the muscle cells. This lowers the water potential and the water is drawn back into the cells via osmosis and air is brought closer to the muscle cells. The diffusion pathway is then reduced and gases can be transferred more easily."
 "Insects were once believed to exchange gases with the environment continuously by the simple diffusion of gases into the tracheal system. More recently, however, large variation in insect ventilatory patterns have been documented and insect respiration appears to be highly variable. Some small insects do demonstrate continuous respiration and may lack muscular control of the spiracles. Others, however, utilize muscular contraction of the abdomen along with coordinated spiracle contraction and relaxation to generate cyclical gas exchange patterns and to reduce water loss into the atmosphere. The most extreme form of these patterns is termed discontinuous gas exchange cycles ."

"Let's move on."
 "Molluscs   Molluscs generally possess gills that allow exchange of oxygen from an aqueous environment into the circulatory system. These animals also possess a heart that pumps blood which contains hemocyaninine as its oxygen-capturing molecule. Hence, this respiratory system is similar to that of vertebrate fish. The respiratory system of gastropods can include either gills or a lung."
 "Of course it may seem that the usage of studying other creatures and their Physiology are quite redundant. However, history has taught us that the study of the brilliance and the flaws of other species as well as knowing the things that destroy or augment its imperfections, may be used in the human body as well."

 "Ventilation   In respiratory physiology, the ventilation rate is the rate at which gas enters or leaves the lung. It is categorized under the following definitions:
 Control    Ventilation occurs via the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata and the pons of the brainstem. These areas of the brain form a series of interconnected brain cells within the lower and middle brain stem which receive information about the arterial partial pressure of oxygen  and the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide . This information determines the average medium term rate of ventilation of the alveoli of the lungs, to keep the arterial flow normal, a person with a high hematocrit carries more oxygen per liter of blood than a person with a lower hematocrit does. High altitude dwellers therefore have higher hematocrits than sea-level residents.
 Immune functions   
 Airway epithelial cells can secrete a variety of molecules that aid in the defense of lungs. Secretory immunoglobulins, collectins, defensins and other peptides and proteases, reactive oxygen species, and reactive nitrogen species are all generated by airway epithelial cells. These secretions can act directly as antimicrobials to help keep the airway free of infection. Airway epithelial cells also secrete a variety of chemokines and cytokines that recruit the traditional immune cells and others to site of infections.
 Most of the respiratory system is lined with mucous membranes that contain mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue, which produces white blood cells such as lymphocytes.
 Metabolic and endocrine functions of the lungs   In addition to their functions in gas exchange, the lungs have a number of metabolic functions. They manufacture surfactant for local use, as noted above. They also contain a fibrinolytic system that lyses clots in the pulmonary vessels. They release a variety of substances that enter the systemic arterial blood and they remove other substances from the systemic venous blood that reach them via the pulmonary artery. Prostaglandins are removed from the circulation, but they are also synthesized in the lungs and released into the blood when lung tissue is stretched."
 "The lungs also activate one hormone; the physiologically inactive decapeptide angiotensin I is converted to the pressor, aldosterone-stimulating octapeptide angiotensin II in the pulmonary circulation. The reaction occurs in other tissues as well, but it is particularly prominent in the lungs. Large amounts of the angiotensin-converting enzyme responsible for this activation are located on the surface of the endothelial cells of the pulmonary capillaries. The converting enzyme also inactivates bradykinin. Circulation time through the pulmonary capillaries is less than one second, yet 70% of the angiotensin I reaching the lungs is converted to angiotensin II in a single trip through the capillaries. Four other peptidases have been identified on the surface of the pulmonary endothelial cells."
 "Vocalization    The movement of gas through the larynx, pharynx and mouth allows humans to speak, or phonate. Vocalization, or singing, in birds occurs via the syrinx, an organ located at the base of the trachea. The vibration of air flowing across the larynx, in humans, and the syrinx, in birds, results in sound. Because of this, gas movement is extremely vital for communication purposes."
 "Temperature control    Panting in dogs, cats and some other animals including humans provides a means of controlling body temperature. This physiological response is used as a cooling mechanism. Which is why when we finish exercising, we pant, not only to replenish the oxygen debt, but also control the rising temperatures in our body. Indeed, there are more reasons than one in a single action done through homeostasis."
 "Coughing and sneezing    Irritation of nerves within the nasal passages or airways, can induce a cough reflex and sneezing. These responses cause air to be expelled forcefully from the trachea or nose, respectively. In this manner, irritants caught in the mucus which lines the respiratory tract are expelled or moved to the mouth where they can be swallowed. During coughing, contraction of the smooth muscle narrows the trachea by pulling the ends of the cartilage plates together and by pushing soft tissue out into the lumen. This increases the expired airflow rate to dislodge and remove any irritant particle or mucus."
 "Development  Humans and mammals   The respiratory system lies dormant in the human fetus during pregnancy. At birth, the respiratory system becomes fully functional upon exposure to air, although some lung development and growth continues throughout childhood. Pre-term birth can lead to infants with under-developed lungs. These lungs show incomplete development of the alveolar type II cells, cells that produce surfactant. The lungs of pre-term infants may not function well because the lack of surfactant leads to increased surface tension within the alveoli. Thus, many alveoli collapse such that no gas exchange can occur within some or most regions of an infant's lungs, a condition termed respiratory distress syndrome. Basic scientific experiments, carried out using cells from chicken lungs, support the potential for using steroids as a means of furthering development of type II alveolar cells. In fact, once a premature birth is threatened, every effort is made to delay the birth, and a series of steroid shots is frequently administered to the mother during this delay in an effort to promote lung growth."
 "Disease  Disorders of the respiratory system can be classified into four general areas:Obstructive conditions Restrictive conditions Vascular diseases Infectious, environmental and other "diseases" :Coughing is of major importance, as it is the body's main method to remove dust, mucus, saliva, and other debris from the lungs. Inability to cough can lead to infection. Deep breathing exercises may help keep finer structures of the lungs clear from particulate matter, etc."
 "The respiratory tract is constantly exposed to microbes due to the extensive surface area, which is why the respiratory system includes many mechanisms to defend itself and prevent pathogens from entering the body.Disorders of the respiratory system are usually treated internally by a pulmonologist and Respiratory Therapist."

"Alright, now I would like to discuss about the respiratory system in Plants. Seeing that we still have enough time and that one must not underrate the immense importance of plants as a tool for us to respire. It could also be noted that whatever a species takes, the result would be different each time. If my words are spinning, allow me to provide an example, if we were to boil tea without sweetening, it would be bitter but overall natural, however brewing tea with sweetening would instead affect the result."

"Plants work the same way, whatever chemical or biological agent that was exposed to it, it could potentially provide an alarming effect to the living creatures that breathe its produce. Further studies have included this, and such shall be formally introduced to you in semesters that follow. I suggest however, that if this piques your interest, to try and find out more on your own."

"Alright, continuing the lecture, Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of photosynthesis, and exhale oxygen gas as waste. The chemical equation of photosynthesis is 6 CO2  and 6 H2O  and that makes 6 O2  and C6H12O6 . What is not expressed in the chemical equation is the capture of energy from sunlight which occurs. Photosynthesis uses electrons on the carbon atoms as the repository for that energy. Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis. It reclaims the energy to power chemical reactions in cells. In so doing the carbon atoms and their electrons are combined with oxygen forming a gas which is easily removed from both the cells and the organism. Plants use both processes, photosynthesis to capture the energy and respiration to use it.Plant respiration is limited by the process of diffusion. Plants take in carbon dioxide through holes on the undersides of their leaves known as stoma or pores. However, most plants require little air. Most plants have relatively few living cells outside of their surface because air can penetrate only skin deep. However, most plants are not involved in highly aerobic activities, and thus have no need of these living cells."
"We are going to proceed with the Pathology later on, are there any questions concerning my lecture?"

"毎日の小さな努力の積み重ねが歴史を作っていくんだよ。"

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Put a little effort everyday and it will stack up and create a foundation for you.

- Doraemon


Treasure Island Awards Best Roleplay 2020
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Things to know: Medical Intern and Biomedical Scientist from Indonesia, Muslim, 188 metres tall, loves trains

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